Foundations practice

Name the missing premise. If it is unchecked, the conclusion is not shown. The claim in play is that Saturday is always busier. 36 versus 24 is a festival Saturday, not a typical week The extra figure (A side count of 4 used a different definition from 9) is part of what you must not ignore.

Keep the conclusion inside the evidence. Do not import a cause that was not given. The claim in play is that the route is unreliable. one wet day is not the route's usual performance The extra figure (The working copy is dated 9 days later than a 20-page cited copy) is part of what you must not ignore.

A change that arrives with another change is not a cause until those extras are ruled out. The claim in play is that patients are wasting appointments. unused is not the same as did-not-attend, and the reason is unstated The extra figure (14 of 31 rows were added after the first total was announced) is part of what you must not ignore.

Score each argument by the evidence it actually cites, not by how confident it sounds. The claim in play is that the household is using much more energy. estimated readings can shift cost between periods The extra figure (A second observer recorded 19 where the first sheet shows 42) is part of what you must not ignore.

One well-formed contrary case is enough to show that an unrestricted rule fails. The claim in play is that the fine must be 4 coins. with a 1-day grace, day 16 is one chargeable day, not two The extra figure (The window used for 5 days is not the window used for 16 days) is part of what you must not ignore.

List the limits that still bind. An option that needs a resource you do not have is not available. The claim in play is that everyone can have the same spend. six double shares consume 12 of 15 units of budget The extra figure (A note in the margin says 10 cases were excluded without a rule, against 27 kept) is part of what you must not ignore.

Match the claim's scope to the sample, time window and population that were actually observed. The claim in play is that group B trained better. 5/8 is a higher rate than 8/20, but the groups may not be comparable The extra figure (The same label covers 15 events in one table and 38 in the other) is part of what you must not ignore.

Identify the comparison, baseline or source that is absent, and withhold the stronger wording until it arrives. The claim in play is that the service is mostly fine. a 30 percent miss rate is not 'most' in the ordinary sense of the word The extra figure (An appendix lists 20 exceptions that the summary of 12 does not mention) is part of what you must not ignore.

Replace 'proves' and 'always' with what the observations actually cover. The claim in play is that the event is unaffected because it starts before 18:00. the overlap after 18:00 is inside the warning The extra figure (A side count of 6 used a different definition from 23) is part of what you must not ignore.

If two sides count different things, agree the definition before arguing about the number. The claim in play is that Friday is fully covered. cleaning has no owner if both names are cooks The extra figure (The working copy is dated 11 days later than a 34-page cited copy) is part of what you must not ignore.

A volunteer, leftover or convenience sample cannot stand in for the group the claim names. The claim in play is that the cheaper sailing is better value. value depends on arriving before 10:30, which the 12:00 cannot do The extra figure (16 of 45 rows were added after the first total was announced) is part of what you must not ignore.

Name the co-occurring change and say what comparison would separate the two. The claim in play is that stock is healthy. an uncounted essential with a zero is not evidence of health The extra figure (A second observer recorded 21 where the first sheet shows 19) is part of what you must not ignore.

Better than what, for whom, over which period, on which measure. The claim in play is that the class average shows a weak group. the mean is pulled by one extreme mark The extra figure (The window used for 7 days is not the window used for 30 days) is part of what you must not ignore.

State the boundary condition. A rule without a stated exception is being oversold. The claim in play is that 12 places remain. 28 plus 16 is 44, which already exceeds capacity The extra figure (A note in the margin says 12 cases were excluded without a rule, against 41 kept) is part of what you must not ignore.

The party asserting a general effect must produce the comparison; the other party need not disprove a slogan. The claim in play is that the campaign halved use. the holiday shutdown is a competing explanation The extra figure (The same label covers 17 events in one table and 15 in the other) is part of what you must not ignore.

A story about how an effect happens is not evidence that it happened. The claim in play is that 20 km is a fair summary. the mean is 20.7 because of one 40 km ride; the median is 12 The extra figure (An appendix lists 22 exceptions that the summary of 26 does not mention) is part of what you must not ignore.

Put the statements side by side. If they conflict, at least one needs a source or a revision. The claim in play is that phones dominate losses. 12 umbrellas outnumber 3 phones The extra figure (A side count of 8 used a different definition from 37) is part of what you must not ignore.

Say what the proxy actually captures and what part of the outcome it misses. The claim in play is that the poster worked. the location change arrived at the same time The extra figure (The working copy is dated 13 days later than a 11-page cited copy) is part of what you must not ignore.

A cause must precede its effect. If the 'result' was already trending, the intervention is not shown to be responsible. The claim in play is that the raffle has 400 coins to give. unsold tickets are not income; sold income is 340 coins The extra figure (18 of 22 rows were added after the first total was announced) is part of what you must not ignore.

A single setting does not licence a rule about all settings of that type. The claim in play is that the heating is broken in the morning. the afternoon sensor sits in sun, so the comparison is not like-for-like The extra figure (A second observer recorded 4 where the first sheet shows 33) is part of what you must not ignore.

Write the suppressed step. If that step is false, the argument collapses. The claim in play is that Ava walked further. two devices are not the same measure The extra figure (The window used for 9 days is not the window used for 44 days) is part of what you must not ignore.

Pick the alternative that would produce the same observations, then name the test that could split them. The claim in play is that four singles is the only option. four singles cost 12, the same as the five-pack, so the pack is not cheaper for four The extra figure (A note in the margin says 14 cases were excluded without a rule, against 18 kept) is part of what you must not ignore.

All, most, some and none are different claims. Keep the one the data can support. The claim in play is that 20 percent up means near danger. 1.4 versus 1.8 is still 0.4 m below danger; percent of yesterday is the wrong comparison The extra figure (The same label covers 19 events in one table and 29 in the other) is part of what you must not ignore.

Name the property that holds in the source case but not in the target case. The claim in play is that net membership rose by 12. net change is 12 minus 9, which is 3 The extra figure (An appendix lists 5 exceptions that the summary of 40 does not mention) is part of what you must not ignore.

If the threshold is implicit, make it explicit before treating the verdict as fair. The claim in play is that the mean of 6.3 is the team's score. the incomplete judging is not the same observation as the other two The extra figure (A side count of 10 used a different definition from 14) is part of what you must not ignore.

Match the source type to the claim type. An opinion column cannot carry a prevalence claim. The claim in play is that the unused days are 11. whether holidays count as unused is the missing rule The extra figure (The working copy is dated 15 days later than a 25-page cited copy) is part of what you must not ignore.

Identify the missing group, time period or cost, and say how it would move the recommendation. The claim in play is that the plants are on schedule. two days in a row is not every 3 days, and the volume is unmeasured The extra figure (20 of 36 rows were added after the first total was announced) is part of what you must not ignore.

State a specific observation that would count the other way. If none exists, the claim is unfalsifiable. The claim in play is that the class doubled to full competence. 16/20 is 80 percent, not competence, even though 8 to 16 is a doubling The extra figure (A second observer recorded 6 where the first sheet shows 10) is part of what you must not ignore.

A total can be right while every important subgroup moves the other way. Ask for the split. The claim in play is that A won with most of the club. 18 of 40 is not most of the club; it is most of the votes cast The extra figure (The window used for 11 days is not the window used for 21 days) is part of what you must not ignore.

Inaction is an option. Compare it with the proposal using the same outcome and the same unknowns. The claim in play is that 6 mm is the mean of the three days. an overflow is not 0, and you cannot average a missing third day as if it were 0 or 12 The extra figure (A note in the margin says 16 cases were excluded without a rule, against 32 kept) is part of what you must not ignore.

Compute the change from the stated baseline. Percent change without a base, period or definition is incomplete. The claim in play is that Saturday is always busier. 36 versus 24 is a festival Saturday, not a typical week The extra figure (The same label covers 21 events in one table and 43 in the other) is part of what you must not ignore.

Divide each count by its own eligible population and period before ranking. The claim in play is that the route is unreliable. one wet day is not the route's usual performance The extra figure (An appendix lists 7 exceptions that the summary of 17 does not mention) is part of what you must not ignore.

A large count from a large group can be a lower rate than a small count from a small group. The claim in play is that patients are wasting appointments. unused is not the same as did-not-attend, and the reason is unstated The extra figure (A side count of 12 used a different definition from 28) is part of what you must not ignore.

Describe the difference in units, not the visual height. A truncated axis exaggerates change. The claim in play is that the household is using much more energy. estimated readings can shift cost between periods The extra figure (The working copy is dated 17 days later than a 39-page cited copy) is part of what you must not ignore.

Use the given counts as the sample space. Do not import an outside probability. The claim in play is that the fine must be 4 coins. with a 1-day grace, day 16 is one chargeable day, not two The extra figure (22 of 13 rows were added after the first total was announced) is part of what you must not ignore.

Recalculate under more than one assumption for the missing cases and say whether the ranking survives. The claim in play is that everyone can have the same spend. six double shares consume 12 of 15 units of budget The extra figure (A second observer recorded 8 where the first sheet shows 24) is part of what you must not ignore.

Weight by the size of each group, not by the number of groups. The claim in play is that group B trained better. 5/8 is a higher rate than 8/20, but the groups may not be comparable The extra figure (The window used for 13 days is not the window used for 35 days) is part of what you must not ignore.

Round to the precision the data support. A precise-looking figure from rough inputs is a false exactness. The claim in play is that the service is mostly fine. a 30 percent miss rate is not 'most' in the ordinary sense of the word The extra figure (A note in the margin says 18 cases were excluded without a rule, against 9 kept) is part of what you must not ignore.

Totals are not comparable when the groups differ in size. Divide by headcount. The claim in play is that the event is unaffected because it starts before 18:00. the overlap after 18:00 is inside the warning The extra figure (The same label covers 4 events in one table and 20 in the other) is part of what you must not ignore.

Put both rates on the same period, or refuse the comparison. The claim in play is that Friday is fully covered. cleaning has no owner if both names are cooks The extra figure (An appendix lists 9 exceptions that the summary of 31 does not mention) is part of what you must not ignore.

A percentage of a subset is not the same as a percentage of the whole. The claim in play is that the cheaper sailing is better value. value depends on arriving before 10:30, which the 12:00 cannot do The extra figure (A side count of 14 used a different definition from 42) is part of what you must not ignore.

Restrict the denominator to the group named in the question. The claim in play is that stock is healthy. an uncounted essential with a zero is not evidence of health The extra figure (The working copy is dated 19 days later than a 16-page cited copy) is part of what you must not ignore.

Multiply each amount by its probability and add. Do not pick the most vivid outcome. The claim in play is that the class average shows a weak group. the mean is pulled by one extreme mark The extra figure (5 of 27 rows were added after the first total was announced) is part of what you must not ignore.

A single extreme value pulls the mean. Report both, or use the median when the tail matters. The claim in play is that 12 places remain. 28 plus 16 is 44, which already exceeds capacity The extra figure (A second observer recorded 10 where the first sheet shows 38) is part of what you must not ignore.

Read the index definition. A point on an index is not a person, a pound or a percent unless the documentation says so. The claim in play is that the campaign halved use. the holiday shutdown is a competing explanation The extra figure (The window used for 15 days is not the window used for 12 days) is part of what you must not ignore.

Keep the uncertainty that rounding removed. Do not treat a rounded input as a precise fact. The claim in play is that 20 km is a fair summary. the mean is 20.7 because of one 40 km ride; the median is 12 The extra figure (A note in the margin says 20 cases were excluded without a rule, against 23 kept) is part of what you must not ignore.

Convert to one unit. Mixing hours with minutes, or local currency with another, is not a comparison. The claim in play is that phones dominate losses. 12 umbrellas outnumber 3 phones The extra figure (The same label covers 6 events in one table and 34 in the other) is part of what you must not ignore.

If categories overlap, adding them inflates the whole. Use a unique-count. The claim in play is that the poster worked. the location change arrived at the same time The extra figure (An appendix lists 11 exceptions that the summary of 45 does not mention) is part of what you must not ignore.

A few observations swinging the other way would reverse a large-looking percentage. The claim in play is that the raffle has 400 coins to give. unsold tickets are not income; sold income is 340 coins The extra figure (A side count of 16 used a different definition from 19) is part of what you must not ignore.

Ask for the eligible population and period. Rank rates, not raw totals. The claim in play is that the heating is broken in the morning. the afternoon sensor sits in sun, so the comparison is not like-for-like The extra figure (The working copy is dated 21 days later than a 30-page cited copy) is part of what you must not ignore.

Ask for the values before and after the highlighted pair, and for any other change in that window. The claim in play is that Ava walked further. two devices are not the same measure The extra figure (7 of 41 rows were added after the first total was announced) is part of what you must not ignore.

A larger share of a smaller whole can be fewer people. Report both the share and the count. The claim in play is that four singles is the only option. four singles cost 12, the same as the five-pack, so the pack is not cheaper for four The extra figure (A second observer recorded 12 where the first sheet shows 15) is part of what you must not ignore.

Percentage points are a subtraction of two rates. Percent of a rate is a different number. The claim in play is that 20 percent up means near danger. 1.4 versus 1.8 is still 0.4 m below danger; percent of yesterday is the wrong comparison The extra figure (The window used for 17 days is not the window used for 26 days) is part of what you must not ignore.

Use the same definition, the same hours, and the same eligible group. The claim in play is that net membership rose by 12. net change is 12 minus 9, which is 3 The extra figure (A note in the margin says 22 cases were excluded without a rule, against 37 kept) is part of what you must not ignore.

Compute the rate if all missing cases are successes, and if all are failures. Report that interval. The claim in play is that the mean of 6.3 is the team's score. the incomplete judging is not the same observation as the other two The extra figure (The same label covers 8 events in one table and 11 in the other) is part of what you must not ignore.

Set the two cost expressions equal and solve. That break-even is the decision boundary given these figures. The claim in play is that the unused days are 11. whether holidays count as unused is the missing rule The extra figure (An appendix lists 13 exceptions that the summary of 22 does not mention) is part of what you must not ignore.

Subtract the explained portion. Do not treat the remainder as noise without saying so. The claim in play is that the plants are on schedule. two days in a row is not every 3 days, and the volume is unmeasured The extra figure (A side count of 18 used a different definition from 33) is part of what you must not ignore.

Recompute without it. If the story depends on one point, say so. The claim in play is that the class doubled to full competence. 16/20 is 80 percent, not competence, even though 8 to 16 is a doubling The extra figure (The working copy is dated 4 days later than a 44-page cited copy) is part of what you must not ignore.

Coverage is counted over the group the claim names, not over the files you happened to receive. The claim in play is that A won with most of the club. 18 of 40 is not most of the club; it is most of the votes cast The extra figure (9 of 18 rows were added after the first total was announced) is part of what you must not ignore.

Match the output precision to the roughest input. Extra decimals are not extra knowledge. The claim in play is that 6 mm is the mean of the three days. an overflow is not 0, and you cannot average a missing third day as if it were 0 or 12 The extra figure (A second observer recorded 14 where the first sheet shows 29) is part of what you must not ignore.